The rise and fall of the Ottoman Empire

For over six centuries, the Ottoman Empire was one of the most formidable powers in the world, bridging East and West through a vast territory that spanned three continents. From humble beginnings in the Anatolian highlands, the Ottomans rose with extraordinary speed.

At its peak, the empire commanded strategic trade routes, hosted a rich tapestry of ethnicities and faiths, and developed a sophisticated administrative system that held together an astonishingly diverse population. But much like every empire that came before, the Ottoman dynasty eventually fell to its knees.

How did this massive empire spread so fast and so far? And why did it reach its end? Click through this gallery to find out.

The rise of Osman’s principality

In the late 13th century, Osman I founded a modest principality (or beylik) in what is now present-day Turkey. Despite its size, his beylik would lay the foundation for the Ottoman Empire, one of the world’s longest-lasting and most powerful dynasties.

War and alliance

Osman gained ground by engaging in calculated battles and forging tactical alliances. His reputation for success drew ambitious fighters, initially lured by loot and later by the prestige of Ottoman victories.

Institutionalizing power

Orhan formalized Ottoman strength with a structured military and tax system. This created a reliable revenue stream to fund campaigns, and enabled more deliberate and sustained territorial growth.

Building the Janissary corps

Young boys were taken from Christian families in the Balkans, converted to Islam, and trained as elite soldiers called Janissaries, who were fiercely loyal to the sultan. Many rose to high-ranking positions.

Murad II’s recovery and ambition

In the first half of the 15th century, Murad II restored stability but failed to achieve his ultimate goal of capturing Constantinople. His military campaigns laid groundwork, but the final breakthrough would be left to his son, Mehmed II.

The fall and rebirth of a capital

In 1453, Constantinople fell and became the Ottoman capital, Istanbul. Though diminished from its Byzantine glory, it was reborn as a vibrant, multiethnic, and multilingual urban center under Ottoman rule.

Bringing coffee and goods westward

Istanbul became a cultural and commercial bridge between East and West. Goods like coffee entered Europe through Ottoman trade routes, and this helped shape new habits and tastes on the continent.

An empire of vast reach

The Ottoman Empire stretched across North Africa, southeastern Europe, and the Middle East, binding together a patchwork of peoples, cultures, and religions under the rule of the House of Osman for more than 600 years. So how did it all end?

The decay of the Janissary legacy

Originally elite warriors, the Janissaries became a corrupt and ineffective force by the 18th century, weakened by poor training, outdated arms, and internal rot, all of which led to numerous humiliating military defeats.

The Auspicious Event

On June 15, 1826, Selim’s successor, Mahmud II, decisively crushed the Janissaries (numbering more than 130,000) in what came to be called the Auspicious Event, replacing them with a European-modeled military and setting the stage for broader modernization efforts.

The burden of difference and inequality

Despite reforms, minority groups within the empire (Arabs, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and others) lived with limited rights, paid higher taxes, and were excluded from military service, despite their cultural autonomy.

Resistance to reform

While some welcomed the changes, others in the ruling elite resisted them. Minority populations, who were increasingly drawn to nationalist movements, felt alienated, especially as European powers encouraged separatist aspirations.

A contradictory legacy

Though Abdulhamid II invested in education and infrastructure during his reign from 1876 to 1909, his absolutist rule and widespread censorship meant that the sultanate was making a sharp turn toward authoritarianism.

The Young Turk Revolution

In 1908, army officers led a coup that diminished Abdulhamid’s power and restored the constitution. But real authority soon shifted to the Young Turks, who had their own vision for a reformed Ottoman society.

World War I

The Ottoman Empire aligned with Germany in World War I, and saw initial military success. But the tide turned quickly, bringing devastating losses and the highest per capita death rate among the warring nations.

Foreign support

During the war, the British and Russians backed anti-Ottoman groups, including Armenian factions. These alliances threatened the empire’s integrity and led to increasingly desperate and violent state responses.

The Armenian Genocide

In 1915, under the Temporary Law of Deportation, the Ottoman government carried out mass killings and forced deportations of Armenians. Approximately one million people perished in what is now recognized as a genocide.

The empire’s final collapse

By the end of World War I in 1918, the Ottoman Empire was defeated. Victorious Allied powers moved swiftly to partition its remaining lands, reshaping the region to suit their own strategic and imperial interests.

Mandates and broken promises

British and French officials divided Ottoman Arab lands into new mandates like Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Iraq, despite promises of independence. This decision sowed seeds of discontent that would persist into the modern era.