The fall of history’s greatest empires

Due to their unusual nature, whether due to their vast size, social make-up, or government structure, empires have long been a source of fascination among history buffs. However, some empires lasted for millennia, whereas others collapsed in a few short years. Here’s a look back at the fall of some of the greatest empires in history.

The Roman Empire

Rome was the dominant civilization in the Mediterranean Basin for over 600 years before its gradual decline. The centralized administration of such a vast empire led to mismanagement and bred corruption. To add to its challenges, Rome was increasingly under attack in what has become known as the barbarian invasions. The fall of Rome was completed in 476.

The Aztec Empire

The arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in 1519 was not the only reason for the fall of the Aztec Empire. By the time the invaders arrived, resentment was already rampant among the Aztecs’ subjected tribes, and rebellions and rivalries were on the rise. To add to the empire’s troubles, the Spaniards brought smallpox over from Europe, which ravaged the Aztec people. Decimated by famine and epidemics, the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, fell to Hernan Cortes in 1521.

The Inca Empire

The largest empire in Pre-Columbian America was weakened not only by diseases transmitted by European settlers, but also by a succession crisis following the death of the Incan ruler and his son, resulting in civil war. The empire collapsed in 1533, when Francisco Pizarro and the conquistadors seized the capital city of Cuzco.

The Mali Empire

This great Muslim empire of West Africa suffered from mismanagement by several inept rulers and faced increased competition from its neighbours as trade routes opened up. Attacks by the Tuareg in 1433 further weakened its position, and the Songhai Empire took advantage to build their own empire on part of its territory. The empire continued to fragment and was eventually absorbed into the Moroccan Empire in the 17th century.

The Russian Empire

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia’s Tsarist regime was rigidly autocratic and resistant to modernization. The outbreak of World War I only exacerbated its weaknesses, as the conflict proved costly and triggered a supply crisis. The monarchy could not withstand the 1917 Russian Revolution; it collapsed following the death of Tsar Nicholas II and his entire family, putting a definitive end to the Romanov dynasty.

The German Empire

Kaiser Wilhelm II, the last emperor of Germany, is widely considered to be responsible for triggering World War I. The American president at the time, Woodrow Wilson, exerted pressure to dissolve the regime by insisting that the U.S. would only make peace with a democratic government. Faced with a revolution at home and a mutiny by the Imperial Navy, Wilhelm abdicated, and the Republic of Germany was proclaimed on November 9, 1918.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

Also referred to as the Dual Monarchy, this multi-national empire was vulnerable because of its cultural diversity and the need to balance so many diverging interests. The defeat of Austria-Hungary in World War I spurred revolutions by the Czechs, Yugoslavs and Hungarians, which led to the collapse of the empire.

The Ottoman Empire

After more than 600 years in power, the Ottoman Empire began to weaken as a result of poor leadership, the rise of European powers and increased competition from international trade. The empire’s defeat in World War I led to the division of its territories. The title of Ottoman Sultan was eliminated in 1922 and the new Republic of Turkey was formed.

The New Kingdom of Egypt

The New Kingdom of Egypt spanned from 1570 to 1069 BCE, when ancient Egypt expanded to form a veritable empire. Its dominance eventually began to falter as priests gained influence and the status of the pharaoh diminished. In addition to internal quarrels, outside factions began to invade the region and conquer Egypt’s traditional allies. Egypt became increasingly vulnerable and eventually succumbed to a Persian invasion in 525 BCE.

The Achaemenid Empire

The first Persian empire, formed in the 6th century BCE, spanned parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Egypt, Iran, and Turkey, and was plagued by crisis after crisis, including economic woes, internal power struggles, and populist uprisings. Despite these challenges, it survived until the arrival of Alexander the Great in 330 BCE, who managed to conquer the large empire in just a few years.

The Macedonian Empire

This empire was the brainchild of one man, Alexander the Great (pictured), who unified ancient Greece, conquered Persia and seized Egypt. His empire stretched from Europe to Asia, expanding into India. According to a popular theory, Alexander descended into debauchery and paranoia, turning against those closest to him. When he died at just 33 years old in 323 BCE, his vast empire was divided between his generals.

The Mongol Empire

In 1206, Genghis Khan (pictured) founded the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in history. His rule stretched from the Danube in Europe to the Korean peninsula in Asia. But this vast territory became difficult to sustain, and divisions emerged within the empire. The Mongols’ tribal nature and nomadic social structure began to fragment the empire by the mid-1200s, and power struggles following the death of ruler Kublai Khan in 1294 ultimately led to its collapse.

The Empire of the Qin Dynasty

The first imperial dynasty in Chinese history was also the first to unify the territory and give it its name. Yet, it only lasted 15 years due to its strict laws and repressive policies. These factors resulted in a rebellion in 206 BCE, the execution of the last Qin emperor and a period of fierce civil war.

The Mughal Empire

The powerful Muslim empire that ruled India until the 18th century gradually fell victim to economic decline, corruption and rising nationalist sentiment among its peoples. Foreign invasions weakened the empire to the point of collapse; British colonial expansion finally finished it off.

The Carolingian Empire

In the year 800, Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor (illustration) and ruled over a vast empire that was passed on to his son Louis the Pious. But after the death of Louis the Pious in 840, the territory was divided among his three heirs and the empire was fragmented. Quarrels over succession gave rise to crises and wars that eventually brought on the end of the Carolingian empire, which had been significantly weakened by barbarian invasions (Normans, Saxons, etc.).

The Holy Roman Empire

As the successor to the Carolingian Empire in Germany and part of Italy, this empire aimed to unite the whole of Christendom. However, after nearly a thousand years of existence, it was dissolved in 1806 under pressure from Emperor Napoleon I of France, who dismantled and reconfigured the map of German states.

The First French Empire

France faced various European coalitions as well as constant warfare following the outbreak of the French Revolution. The First French Empire, or French Republic, was hit hard by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte’s failure during the Russian campaign. On June 18, 1815, France lost the Battle of Waterloo, marking the end of Napoleon’s reign as Emperor and the restoration of the monarchy in France.

The Second French Empire

Prussia’s victory over France at Sedan on September 2, 1870, forced Emperor Napoleon III to abdicate (illustration) and eventually go into exile in England. This marked the end of the second and final empire in France. But the French colonial empire, whose foundations had been laid under the reign of Napoleon, developed in the years that followed and survived for almost another century under the various republican regimes.

The British Colonial Empire

Decolonization marked the decline of the British Empire, which at its peak accounted for a quarter of the world’s population (see map). The final step in this long process was the handover of Hong Kong to China in 1997. The U.K., however, has maintained various forms of voluntary association with many of its former colonies, namely through the Commonwealth.